Human Anatomy, Physiology and Pathophysiology II

[ Bpharm (Bachelor of Pharmacy) ]

Under Class: | 2nd Semester (Bpharm) |

Human Anatomy, Physiology and Pathophysiology II - Question Papers, Lecture Notes, Study Material Download PDF

Pharmacy - Bachelor of Pharmacy (Bpharm) - 2nd Semester - 1st Year - Name of Subject: Human Anatomy, Physiology and Pathophysiology II (BP203T) - Lecture Notes, Study Material, Question Papers Download PDF

Essentials of Anatomy and Physiology

Pathology

Fundamentals of Pathology:

• Overview of Pathology

Cellular Injury and Adaptation:

• Causes of Cellular Injury
• Cellular Changes During Injury
• Cell Death
• Cellular Adaptive Responses to Injury
• Other Cellular Alterations During Injury

Inflammation:

• Acute Inflammation
• Chronic Inflammation
• Tissue Responses to Infectious Agents

Tissue Repair:

• Regeneration and Healing
• Aberrations in Wound Healing

Circulatory Pathology:

• EDEMA
• Hemostasis and Bleeding Disorders
• Thrombosis
• Embolism
• Infarction
• Shock

Genetic Disorders:

• Disorders Involving an Extra Autosome
• Disorders Involving Chromosomal Deletions
• Disorders Involving Sex Chromosomes
• Disorders of Sexual Development (DSD)
• Mendelian Disorders
• Autosomal Recessive Disorders
• Autosomal Dominant Disorders
• X-Linked Recessive Conditions
• X-Linked Dominant Conditions
• Triplet Repeat Mutations
• Genomic Imprinting
• Mitochondrial DNA Disorders
• Multifactorial Inheritance

Immunopathology:

• Hypersensitivity Reactions
• Autoimmune Diseases
• Primary Immune Deficiency Syndromes
• Secondary Immune Deficiency Syndromes
• Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDS)
• Immunology of Transplant Rejection

Amyloidosis:

• Composition of Amyloid
• Systemic Types of Amyloid
• Localized Types of Amyloid
• Amyloidosis: Clinical Features

Principles of Neoplasia:

• Principles of Neoplasia: Definition, Epidemiology
• Carcinogenic Agents
• Carcinogenesis
• Diagnosis of Cancer

Skin Pathology:

• Disorders of Pigmentation
• Melanocytic Tumors
• Epidermal and Dermal Lesions
• Malignant Tumors

Red Blood Cell Pathology Anemias:

• Red Blood Cell Morphology
• Anemias
• Microcytic Anemias
• Normocytic Anemias
• Macrocytic Anemias
• Polycythemia Vera

Vascular Pathology:

• The Vasculitides
• Raynaud Disease Versus Phenomenon
• Arteriosclerosis
• Hypertension (HTN)
• Aneurysms and Arteriovenous Fistulas
• Venous Disease
• Vascular Neoplasms

Cardiac Pathology:

• Ischemic Heart Disease
• Congestive Heart Failure
• Valvular Heart Disease
• Myocarditis
• Congenital Heart Disease
• Primary Cardiomyopathies (Diagnosis of Exclusion)
• Carcinoid Heart Disease
• Cardiac Tumors
• Pericardial Disease

Respiratory Pathology:

• Congenital Cystic Lung Lesions
• Atelectasis
• Pulmonary Infections
• Sarcoidosis
• Obstructive Pulmonary Disease
• Infiltrative Restrictive Lung Diseases(Diffuse Interstitial Diseases)
• Vascular Disorders
• Pulmonary Neoplasia
• Laryngeal Cancer
• Diseases of the Pleural Cavity

Renal Pathology:

• Congenital Anomalies of the Kidney
• Cystic Disease
• Glomerular Diseases
• Primary Glomerulopathies (Nephritic Syndrome)
• Primary Glomerulopathies (Nephrotic)
• Secondary Glomerulonephritis
• Chronic Glomerulonephritis
• Tubulointerstitial Nephritis
• Acute Tubular Injury
• Urolithiasis
• Chronic Renal Failure
• Vascular Disorders of the Kidney
• Tumors of the Kidney
• Obstructive Disorders of the Urinary System
• Ureteral Disorders
• Urinary Bladder Pathology

Gastrointestinal Tract Pathology:

• Esophagus
• Pathology: Stomach
• Small and Large Intestines

Pancreatic Pathology:

• Congenital Anomalies of the Pancreas
• Inflammation of the Pancreas
• Pancreatic Tumors

Gallbladder and Biliary Tract Pathology:

• Gallstones (Cholelithiasis)
• Gallbladder: Inflammatory Conditions
• Gallbladder: Miscellaneous Conditions
• Biliary Tract Cancer

Liver Pathology:

• Liver Dysfunction
• Jaundice
• Cirrhosis
• Viral Hepatitis
• Amebic Liver Abscess
• Alcoholic Liver Disease
• Metabolic Liver Disease
• Hemodynamic Liver Diseases
• Liver Tumors

Central Nervous System Pathology:

• Infections - Central Nervous System
• Cerebrovascular Disease
• CNS Trauma And Herniations
• Developmental Abnormalities and Perinatal Brain Injury
• Demyelinating Disorders
• Degenerative and Dementing Disorders
• CNS Tumors

Hematopoetic Pathology White Blood Cell Disorders and Lymphoid and Myeloid Neoplasms:

• Reactive Changes in White Blood Cells
• Lymphoid Neoplasms
• Mature B-Cell Neoplasms
• Peripheral T-Cell and Natural Killer Cell Neoplasms
• Hodgkin Lymphoma
• Acute Leukemias
• B and T Lymphoblastic Lymphoma/Leukemia
• Myeloid Neoplasms
• Diseases of Histiocytes and Dendritic Cells
• Mast Cell Diseases
• Diseases of the Spleen and Thymus

Female Genital Pathology:

• Vulva - Pathology
• Vagina - Pathology
• Cervix - Pathology
• Uterus - Pathology
• Ovary - Pathology
• Placenta - Pathology

Breast Pathology:

• Mastitis
• Fibrocystic Changes
• Benign Neoplasms
• Malignant Neoplasms
• Gynecomastia - Pathology

Male Pathology:

• Penis - Pathology
• Testes - Pathology
• Testicular Cancer
• Prostate

Endocrine Pathology:

• Thyroid Gland - Pathology
• Parathyroid Glands - Pathology
• Pituitary Gland, Hypothalamus, and Pineal Gland - Pathology
• Adrenal Gland - Pathology
• Multiple Endocrine Neoplasia Syndromes
• Diabetes Mellitus

Bone Pathology:

• Normal Bone - Pathology
• Hereditary Bone Disorders
• Paget Disease
• Osteoporosis
• Osteomalacia and Rickets
• Osteomyelitis
• Miscellaneous Bone Disorders
• Benign Tumors of Bone
• Malignant Tumors of Bone

Joint Pathology:

• Osteoarthritis
• Rheumatoid Arthritis
• Seronegative Spondyloarthropathies
• Arthritis Related to Crystal Deposition
• Infectious Arthritis
• Neuropathic Arthropathy (Charcot Joint)

Skeletal Muscle and Peripheral Nerve Pathology:

• Inflammatory Myopathies
• Myasthenic Syndromes
• Muscular Dystrophy
• Inflammatory Neuropathy
• Soft Tissue and Peripheral Nerve Tumors

Anatomy and Physiology Health Education (APHE)

SECTION I: LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION:

Chapter 1: Introduction to Human Anatomy and Physiology:

• Introduction to Human Anatomy and Physiology
• Organization Levels of the Body
• Essentials for Life
• Homeostasis
• Organization of the Body
• Summary

Chapter 2: Chemical Basics of Life:

• Chemical Basics of Life
• Basic Chemistry
• Atoms, Molecules, and Chemical Bonds
• Atomic Structure
• Molecules and Compounds
• Chemical Bonds
• Chemical Reactions
• Acids, Bases, and the pH Scale
• Biochemistry
• Inorganic Substances
• Organic Substances
• Proteins
• Nucleic Acids
• Enzymes and Enzyme Characteristics
• Adenosine Triphosphate
• Summary

Chapter 3: Cells:

• Cells
• Cell Membrane - Structure of the Cell
• Membrane Lipids and Membrane Proteins
• Cytoplasm (Cytosol, Organelles) Structure
• Structure of Endomembrane System and Cytoskeleton
• Structure of Nucleus
• Passive Cell Mechanisms
• Active Cell Mechanisms
• Cell Cycle
• Cell Cycle: Interphase
• Cell Cycle: Cell Division and Cytoplasmic Division
• Cell Cycle: Differentiation
• Cell Cycle: Cell Division and Cancer
• Summary

Chapter 4: Cellular Metabolism:

• Cellular Metabolism
• Metabolic Reactions
• Control of Metabolic Reactions
• Oxidation Reduction Reactions
• Chemical Energy
• Cellular Respiration and Metabolism of Carbohydrates
• Citric Acid Cycle (Krebs Cycle)
• Metabolic Pathways
• Glycogenesis
• Glycogenolysis
• Gluconeogenesis
• Metabolism of Lipids
• Metabolism of Proteins
• Summary

Chapter 5: Tissues:

• Tissues
• Types of Tissues
• Epithelial Tissues
• Connective Tissues
• Classifications of Connective Tissue
• Muscle Tissues
• Nervous or Neural Tissues
• Tissue Membranes
• Tissue Repair
• Effects of Aging on Various Tissues
• Summary on Tissues

SECTION II: SUPPORT AND MOVEMENT:

Chapter 6: Integumentary System:

• Integumentary System
• Skin
• Dermis - Skin
• Nails
• Hairs
• Glands in the Skin
• Functions of the Integumentary System
• Response of the Integument to Injuries and Wounds
• Effects of Aging on the Integumentary System
• Skin Cancer
• Burns
• Summary - Integumentary System

Chapter 7: Bone Tissues and the Skeletal System:

• Bone Tissues and the Skeletal System
• Classifications of Bones
• Structures of Bones
• Microscopic Anatomy (Bone Cells)
• Chemical Composition of Bone
• Growth and Development of Bones
• Functions of Bones
• Bone Homeostasis
• Bone Homeostatic Imbalance
• Axial Skeleton
• Pectoral Girdle - Appendicular Skeleton
• Pelvic Girdle - Appendicular Skeleton
• Effects of Aging on the Skeletal System
• Summary

Chapter 8: Articulations:

• Articulations
• Functional Classifications of Joints
• Fibrous Joints
• Cartilaginous Joints
• Synovial Joints
• Bursae and Tendon Sheaths
• Types of Synovial Joints
• Shoulder Joints
• Elbow Joints
• Hip Joints
• Knee Joints
• Temporomandibular Joints (TMJ)
• Types of Joint Movements
• Intervertebral Joints
• Intervertebral Ligaments
• Joint Injuries
• Effects of Aging on the Joints
• Summary

Chapter 9: Muscle Tissue:

• Muscle Tissue
• Classification of Muscle Tissues
• Characteristics of Muscle Tissue
• Functions of the Muscles
• Coverings of Connective Tissue
• Blood Supply and Nerve Attachments
• Structure of Skeletal Muscle Fibers
• Contraction Stimulus
• Neuromuscular Junction
• Action Potential
• Sarcoplasmic Reticulum and Transverse Tubules
• Somatic Motor Neurons
• Motor Units
• Muscle Twitch
• Energy Sources for Contraction
• Smooth Muscle
• Effects of Aging on Muscle Tissue
• Summary on Muscle Tissue

Chapter 10: Muscular System:

• Muscular System
• Classification of the Muscle Fibers
• Types of Fibers
• Lever Systems
• Effects of Aging on the Muscular System
• Summary

SECTION III: Control and Coordination:

Chapter 11: Neural Tissue:

• Neural Tissue
• Divisions of the Nervous System
• Cells of the Nervous System
• Classification of Nerve Fibers
• Cell Membrane Potential
• Nerve Impulses
• Synapses
• Processing of Impulses
• Effects of Aging on the Nervous System
• Summary

Chapter 12: Central Nervous System:

• Central Nervous System
• The Brain
• Higher Brain Functions
• Brain Protection
• Spinal Cord
• Spinal Neuronal Pathways
• Imbalances of the CNS
• Effects of Aging on the Brain
• Summary

Chapter 13: Peripheral Nervous System and Reflex Activity:

• Peripheral Nervous System and Reflex Activity
• Sensory Receptors
• General Senses
• Peripheral Nerves:Cranial, Spinal Nerves
• Cranial Nerves
• Spinal Nerves
• Peripheral Motor Endings
• Somatic Nervous System
• Imbalances of the PNS (Peripheral Nervous System)
• Effects of Aging on the PNS (Peripheral Nervous System)
• Summary

Chapter 14: Autonomic Nervous System (ANS):

• Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)
• Comparison of the Somatic Nervous System and Autonomic Nervous System
• Major ANS(Autonomic Nervous System) Neurotransmitters
• Autonomic Nerve Fibers
• Divisions of the Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)
• Differences Between the Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Divisions
• Cholinergic Receptors
• Adrenergic Receptors
• Control of Autonomic Activity
• Somatic and Autonomic Function Overlap
• Higher Levels of Autonomic Control
• Imbalances of the ANS (Autonomic Nervous System)
• Effects of Aging on the Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)
• Summary

Chapter 15: Special Senses:

• Special Senses
• Sense of Smell
• Sense of Taste
• Sense of Hearing
• Sense of Equilibrium
• Sense of Sight
• Effects of Aging on the Senses
• Summary

Chapter 16: Endocrine System:

• Endocrine System
• Hormones
• Control of Hormones
• Pituitary Gland
• Thyroid Gland
• Parathyroid Glands
• Adrenal Glands
• Pineal Gland
• Other Glands, Organs, or Tissues
• Stress
• Effects of Aging on the Endocrine System
• Summary

SECTION IV: Transport:

Chapter 17: Blood:

• Blood
• Blood Functions
• Blood Components
• Plasma
• Erythrocytes
• Disorders of Erythrocytes
• Leukocytes or white blood cells (WBCs)
• Platelets or thrombocytes
• Hemostasis
• Blood Types and Transfusions
• Diagnostic Blood Tests
• Effects of Aging on the Blood
• Summary

Chapter 18: The Heart:

• The Heart
• Blood Circulation
• Structures of the Heart
• Functions of the Heart
• Effects of Aging on the Cardiovascular System
• Summary

Chapter 19: Vascular System:

• Vascular System
• Blood Vessel Structure
• Arterial System
• Capillaries
• Venous System
• Vascular Anastomoses
• Blood Circulation
• Blood Pressure
• Neural Controls of Blood Vessels
• Blood Vessel Pathways and Divisions
• Aorta and Its Branches
• Veins and Their Branches
• Effects of Aging on the Vascular System
• Summary

Chapter 20: Lymphatic System and Immunity:

• Lymphatic System and Immunity
• Organization of the Lymphatic System
• Body Defenses and Fighting Infection
• Innate (Nonspecific) Defenses
• Adaptive (Specific) Defenses
• B and T Lymphocytes Related to the Adaptive Immune Response
• Humoral Immune Response
• Antibodies
• Cellular Immune Response
• Major Effector T Cells
• Imbalance of Immune System Homeostasis
• Hypersensitivities
• Effects of Aging on the Lymphatic System and Immunity
• Summary

SECTION V: Environmental Exchange:

Chapter 21: Respiratory System:

• Respiratory System
• Respiratory System Functions
• Organization of the Respiratory System
• Nose and Paranasal Sinuses
• Pharynx
• Larynx
• Trachea
• Gross Anatomy of the Lungs
• The Pleural Cavities and Pleural Membranes
• The Respiratory Muscles
• Gas Exchange
• Control of Breathing
• Factors of Respiratory Rate and Depth
• Effects of Aging on the Respiratory System
• Summary

Chapter 22: Urinary System:

• Urinary System
• Anatomy of the Kidneys
• Internal Kidney Anatomy
• Structures of the Nephron
• Formation of Urine
• Glomerular Filtration
• Tubular Reabsorption
• Tubular Secretion
• Composition of Urine
• Ureters
• Urinary Bladder
• Urethra
• Effects of Aging on the Urinary System
• Summary

Chapter 23: Fluid, Electrolyte, and Acid Base Balance:

• Fluid, Electrolyte, and Acid Base Balance
• Body Fluid Distribution
• Fluid Balance
• Fluid Intake and Output
• Electrolyte Balance
• Acid-Base Balance
• Acid-Base Imbalances
• Effects of Aging on Water, Electrolyte, and Acid-Base Balance
• Summary

Chapter 24: Digestive System:

• Digestive System
• Alimentary Canal
• Functions of the Digestive System
• Movement of Digestive Materials
• Mouth
• Salivary Glands
• Teeth
• Esophagus
• Stomach
• Small Intestine
• Liver
• Gallbladder
• Pancreas
• Large Intestine
• Digestion and Absorption of Nutrients
• Effects of Aging on the Digestive System
• Summary

SECTION VI: Continuity of Life:

Chapter 25: Reproductive System:

• Reproductive System
• Anatomy of the Male Reproductive System
• Physiology of the Male Reproductive System
• Anatomy of the Female Reproductive System
• Physiology of the Female Reproductive System
• Sexually Transmitted Infections (STI)
• Effects of Aging on the Reproductive System
• Summary

Chapter 26: Pregnancy and Development:

• Pregnancy and Development
• Fertilization
• Prenatal Development
• Parturition (Birth)
• Postnatal Development: Lactation
• Summary

Chapter 27: Heredity:

• Heredity
• Genes
• Genetic Variation
• Patterns of Inheritance
• Heredity: Environmental Factors
• Heredity: Gender-Related Factors
• Genetic Screening
• Summary

BP203T:

Human Anatomy, Physiology and Pathophysiology II (Theory)

COURSE OBJECTIVES

The objectives of this course are to:

1. Understand the anatomy and physiology of major body systems.

2. Learn mechanisms of neurological, gastrointestinal, respiratory, renal, endocrine, and reproductive functions.

3. Identify common pathophysiological conditions affecting each organ system.

4. Correlate structural and functional abnormalities with disease symptoms.

5. Equip students with foundational knowledge for interpreting disease processes and planning rational pharmacotherapy.

Course Outcomes (CO):

Upon successful completion of this course, the students will be able to:

1. Describe the structural organization of the nervous, gastrointestinal, respiratory, urinary, endocrine and reproductive systems.

2. Explain the physiological mechanisms that regulate the functions of nervous, endocrine and reproductive systems.

3. Illustrate the etiology and development of common diseases affecting different organ systems including cancer.

4. Analyze the pathophysiological alterations associated with disorders of the nervous, gastrointestinal, respiratory, renal and endocrine systems.

5. Interpret clinical manifestations and case findings related to organ system dysfunctions.

Detailed Syllabus:

Unit I

Nervous System

a) Organization of nervous system, neuron, neuroglia, classification and properties of nerve fibre, electrophysiology, action potential, nerve impulse, receptors, synapse and neurotransmitters.

Central nervous system: Meninges, ventricles of brain and cerebrospinal fluid. Structure and functions of brain (cerebrum, brain stem and cerebellum), spinal cord (gross structure, functions of afferent and efferent nerve tracts, reflex activity).

b) Pathophysiology of epilepsy, Parkinson’s disease, stroke, migraine, depression, schizophrenia, Alzheimer’s disease and meningitis.

Unit II

Gastrointestinal System

a) Anatomy of GI tract with special reference to anatomy and functions of stomach (acid production in the stomach and its regulation through parasympathetic nervous system; role of pepsin in protein digestion). Anatomy and functions of small intestine and large intestine. Anatomy and functions of salivary glands, pancreas and liver. Movements of GIT, digestion and absorption of nutrients.

b) Pathophysiology of inflammatory bowel diseases, peptic ulcer, jaundice, hepatitis, typhoid and alcoholic and non alcoholic fatty liver disease

Unit III

a) Respiratory System

Anatomy of respiratory system with special reference to anatomy of lungs. Mechanism of respiration and regulation of respiration. Lung volumes and capacities, transport of respiratory gases, artificial respiration and resuscitation methods.

b) Pathophysiology of asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary diseases and tuberculosis.

c) Urinary System

Anatomy of urinary tract with special reference to anatomy of kidney and nephrons. Functions of kidney and urinary tract. Physiology of urine formation, micturition reflex and role of kidneys in acid–base balance.

Role of Renin Angitensin Aldosterone System in kidney.

d) Pathophysiology of acute and chronic renal failure and urinary tract infections.

Unit IV

Endocrine System

a) Classification of hormones and mechanism of hormone action. Structure and functions of pituitary gland, thyroid gland, parathyroid gland, adrenal gland, pancreas, pineal gland and thymus.

b) Pathophysiology of diabetes, hypothyroidism, hyperthyroidism, goiter and polycystic ovary syndrome.

Unit V

Reproductive System and Cancer

a) Anatomy of male and female reproductive system. Functions of male and female reproductive system, sex hormones, physiology of menstruation, fertilization, spermatogenesis, oogenesis, pregnancy and parturition.

b) Pathophysiology of sexually transmitted diseases: AIDS, syphilis and gonorrhea.

c) Etiology and pathogenesis of cancer.

Recommended References (Preferably latest editions):

1. Wilson, K.J.W., Ross and Wilson Anatomy and Physiology in Health and Illness. Churchill Livingstone, New York.

2. Tortora, G.J. and Grabowski, S.R., Principles of Anatomy and Physiology. Palmetto, GA, U.S.A.

3. Guyton, A.C. and Hall, J.E., Textbook of Medical Physiology. Elsevier.

4. Chatterjee, C.C., Human Physiology (Vol. I & II). Academic Publishers, Kolkata.

5. Mohan, H., Textbook of Pathology. Jaypee Publishers.

6. Porth, C.M., Pathophysiology: Concepts of Altered Health States. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.

7. Kumar, V., Abbas, A.K., Aster, J.C. and Deyrup, A.T., Robbins and Kumar Basic Pathology. Elsevier.